From the book
Fruits of Warm Climates
by Julia F. Morton
Jambolan
Syzygium cumini Skeels
Syzygium jambolanum DC.
Eugenia cumini Druce
This member of the Myrtaceae is of wider interest for its medicinal applications than for its edible fruit. Botanically it is Syzygium cumini Skeels (syns. S. jambolanum DC., Eugenia cumini Druce, E. jambolana Lam., E. djouat Perr., Myrtus cumini L., Calyptranthes jambolana
Willd.). Among its many colloquial names are Java plum, Portuguese
plum, Malabar plum, black plum, purple plum, and, in Jamaica, damson
plum; also Indian blackberry. In India and Malaya it is variously known
as jaman, jambu, jambul, jambool, jambhool, jamelong, jamelongue,
jamblang, jiwat, salam, or koriang. In Thailand, it is wa, or ma-ha; in
Laos, va; Cambodia, pring bai or pring das krebey; in Vietnam, voi
rung; in the Philippines, duhat, lomboy, lunaboy or other dialectal
appelations; in Java, djoowet, or doowet. In Venezuela, local names are
pésjua extranjera or guayabo pésjua; in Surinam, koeli,
jamoen, or druif (Dutch for "grape"); in Brazil, jambuláo,
jaláo, jameláo or jambol
Plate LII: JAMBOLAN, Syzygium cumini
Description
The
jambolan is fast-growing, reaching full size in 40 years. It ranges up
to 100 ft (30 m) in India and Oceania; up to 40 or 50 ft (12-15 m) in
Florida; and it may attain a spread of 36 ft (11 m) and a trunk
diameter of 2 or 3 ft (0.6-0.9 m). It usually forks into multiple
trunks a short distance from the ground. The bark on the lower part of
the tree is rough, cracked, flaking and discolored; further up it is
smooth and light-gray. The turpentine-scented evergreen leaves are
opposite, 2 to 10 in (5-25 cm) long, 1 to 4 in (2.5-10 cm) wide;
oblong-oval or elliptic, blunt or tapering to a point at the apex;
pinkish when young; when mature, leathery, glossy, dark-green above,
lighter beneath, with conspicuous, yellowish midrib. The fragrant
flowers, in 1-to 4-in (2.5-10 cm) clusters, are 1/2 in (1.25 cm) wide,
1 in (2.5 cm) or more in length; have a funnel-shaped calyx and 4 to 5
united petals, white at first, then rose-pink, quickly shed leaving
only the numerous stamens.
The fruit, in clusters of just a few
or 10 to 40, is round or oblong, often curved; 1/2 to 2 in (1.25-5 m)
long, and usually turns from green to light-magenta, then dark-purple
or nearly black as it ripens. A white-fruited form has been reported in
Indonesia. The skin is thin, smooth, glossy, and adherent. The pulp is
purple or white, very juicy, and normally encloses a single, oblong,
green or brown seed, up to 1 1/2 in (4 cm) in length, though some
fruits have 2 to 5 seeds tightly compressed within a leathery coat, and
some are seedless. The fruit is usually astringent, sometimes
unpalatably so, and the flavor varies from acid to fairly sweet.
Origin and Distribution
The
jambolan is native in India, Burma, Ceylon and the Andaman Islands. It
was long ago introduced into and became naturalized in Malaya. In
southern Asia, the tree is venerated by Buddhists, and it is commonly
planted near Hindu temples because it is considered sacred to Krishna.
The leaves and fruits are employed in worshipping the elephant-headed
god, Ganesha or Vinaijaka, the personification of "Pravana" or "Om",
the apex of Hindu religion and philosophy.
The tree is thought
to be of prehistoric introduction into the Philippines where it is
widely planted and naturalized, as it is in Java and elsewhere in the
East Indies, and in Queensland and New South Wales, also on the islands
of Zanzibar and Pemba and Mombasa and adjacent coast of Kenya. In
Ghana, it is found only in gardens. Introduced into Israel perhaps
about 1940, it grows vigorously there but bears scantily, the fruit is
considered valueless but the tree is valued as an ornamental and for
forestry in humid zones. It is grown to some extent in Algiers.
By
1870, it had become established in Hawaii and, because of seed
dispersal by mynah birds, it occurs in a semiwild state on all the
Hawaiian islands in moist areas below 2,000 ft (600 in). There are
vigorous efforts to exterminate it with herbicides because it shades
out desirable forage plants. It is planted in most of the inhabited
valleys in the Marquesas. It was in cultivation in Bermuda, Cuba,
Haiti, Jamaica, the French Islands of the Lesser Antilles and Trinidad
in the early 20th Century; was introduced into Puerto Rico in 1920; but
still has remained little-known in the Caribbean region. At the
Lancetilla Experimental Garden at Tela, Honduras, it grows and fruits
well. It is seldom planted elsewhere in tropical America but is
occasionally seen in Guatemala, Belize, Surinam, Venezuela and Brazil.
The
Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture
received jambolan seeds from the Philippines in 1911, from Java in
1912, from Zanzibar and again from the Philippines in 1920. The tree
flourishes in California, especially in the vicinity of Santa Barbara,
though the climate is not congenial for production or ripening of
fruit. In southern Florida, the tree was rather commonly planted in the
past. Here, as in Hawaii, fruiting is heavy, only a small amount of the
crop has been utilized in home preserving. The jambolan has lost
popularity, as it has in Malaya where it used to be frequently grown in
gardens. Heavy crops litter streets, sidewalks and lawns, attracting
insects, rapidly fermenting and creating a foul atmosphere. People are
eager to have the trees cut down. Where conditions favor spontaneous
growth, the seedlings become a nuisance, as well.
Varieties
The
common types of jambolan in India are: 1) Ra Jaman, with large, oblong
fruits, dark-purple or bluish, with pink, sweet pulp and small seeds;
2) Kaatha, with small, acid fruits. Among named cultivars are, mainly, 'Early Wild', 'Late Wild', 'Pharenda'; and, secondarily, 'Small Jaman' and 'Dabka'
('Dubaka'). In Java, the small form is called Djoowet kreekil; a
seedless form is Djoowet booten. In southern Malaya, the trees are
small-leaved with small flower clusters. Farther north, the variety
called 'Krian Duat' has larger, thicker leaves and red inner bark. Fruits with purple flesh are more astringent than the white-fleshed types.
Climate
The
jambolan tree grows well from sea-level to 6,000 ft (1,800 m) but,
above 2,000 ft (600 m) it does not fruit but can be grown for its
timber. It develops most luxuriantly in regions of heavy rainfall, as
much as 400 in (1,000 cm) annually. It prospers on river banks and has
been known to withstand prolonged flooding. Yet it is tolerant of
drought after it has made some growth. Dry weather is desirable during
the flowering and fruiting periods. It is sensitive to frost when young
but mature trees have been undamaged by brief below-freezing
temperatures in southern Florida.
Soil
Despite
its ability to thrive in low, wet areas, the tree does well on higher,
well-drained land whether it be in loam, marl, sand or oolitic
limestone.
Propagation
Jambolan
seeds lose viability quickly. They are the most common means of
dissemination, are sown during the rainy season in India, and germinate
in approximately 2 weeks. Semi-hardwood cuttings, treated with
growth-promoting hormones have given 20% success and have grown well.
Budding onto seedlings of the same species has also been successful.
Veneer-grafting of scions from the spring flush has yielded 31%
survivors. The modified Forkert method of budding may be more feasible.
When a small-fruited, seedless variety in the Philippines was budded
onto a seeded stock, the scion produced large fruits, some with seeds
and some without. Approach-grafting and inarching are also practiced in
India. Air-layers treated with 500 ppm indolebutyric acid have rooted
well in the spring (60% of them) but have died in containers in the
summer.
Culture
Seedlings
grow slowly the first year, rapidly thereafter, and may reach 12 ft
(3.65 m) in 2 years, and begin bearing in 8 to 10 years. Grafted trees
bear in 4 to 7 years. No particular cultural attention seems to be
required, apart from frost protection when young and control measures
for insect infestations. In India, organic fertilizer is applied after
harvest but withheld in advance of flowering and fruiting to assure a
good crop. If a tree does not bear heavily, it may be girdled or
root-pruned to slow down vegetative growth.
The tree is grown as
shade for coffee in India. It is wind-resistant and sometimes is
closely planted in rows as a windbreak. If topped regularly, such
plantings form a dense, massive hedge. Trees are set 20 ft (6 m) apart
in a windbreak; 40 ft (12 m) apart along roadsides and avenues.
Fruiting Season
The
fruit is in season in the Marquesas in April; in the Philippines, from
mid-May to mid-June. In Hawaii, the crop ripens in late summer and
fall. Flowering occurs in Java in July and August and the fruits ripen
in September and October. In Ceylon, the tree blooms from May to August
and the fruit is harvested in November and December. The main fruiting
season in India and southern Florida (where the tree blooms principally
in February and March) extends through late May, June and July. Small
second crops from late blooms have been observed in October. Individual
trees may habitually bear later than others.
Harvesting and Yield
In
India, the fruits are harvested by hand as they ripen and this requires
several pickings over the season. Indian horticulturists have reported
a crop of 700 fruits from a 5-year-old tree. The production of a large
tree may be overwhelming to the average homeowner.
Pests and Diseases
In Florida, some jambolan trees are very susceptible to scale insects. The whitefly, Dialeurodes eugeniae,
is common on jambolans throughout India. Of several insect enemies in
South India, the most troublesome are leaf-eating caterpillars: Carea subtilis, Chrysocraspeda olearia, Phlegetonia delatrbc, 0enospila flavifuscata, Metanastria hyrtaca, and Euproctis fraterna. These pests may cause total defoliation. The leafminer, Acrocercops phaeospora, may be a major problem at times. Idiocerus atkinsoni sucks the sap of flowering shoots, buds and flower clusters, causing them to fall.
The fruits are attacked by fruit flies (Dacus diversus
in India), and are avidly eaten by birds and four-footed animals
(jackals and civets). In Australia, they are a favorite food of the
large bat called "flying fox."
Diseases recorded as found on the jambolan by inspectors of the Florida Department of Agriculture are: black leaf spot (Asterinella puiggarii); green scurf or algal leaf spot (Cephaleuros virescens); mushroom root rot (Clitocybe tabescens); anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides); and leaf spot caused by Phyllosticta eugeniae.
Food Uses
Jambolans
of good size and quality, having a sweet or subacid flavor and a
minimum of astringency, are eaten raw and may be made into tarts,
sauces and jam. Astringent fruits are improved in palatability by
soaking them in salt water or pricking them, rubbing them with a little
salt, and letting them stand for an hour. All but decidedly inferior
fruits have been utilized for juice which is much like grape juice.
When extracting juice from cooked jambolans, it is recommended that it
be allowed to drain out without squeezing the fruit and it will thus be
less astringent. The white-fleshed jambolan has adequate pectin and
makes a very stiff jelly unless cooking is brief. The more common
purple-fleshed yields richly colored jelly but is deficient in pectin
and requires the addition of a commercial jelling agent or must be
combined with pectinrich fruits such as unripe or sour guavas, or
ketembillas.
Good quality jambolan juice is excellent for
sherbet, sirup and "squash". In India, the latter is a bottled drink
prepared by cooking the crushed fruits, pressing out the juice,
combining it with sugar and water and adding citric acid and sodium
benzoate as a preservative.
| Food
Value Per
100 g of Edible Portion* |
| Moisture | 83.7-85.8 g | | Protein | 0.7-0.129 g | | Fat | 0.15-0.3 g | | Crude Fiber | 0.3-0.9 g | | Carbohydrates | 14.0 g | | Ash | 0.32-0.4 g | | Calcium | 8.3-15 mg | | Magnesium | 35 mg | | Phosphorus | 15-16.2 mg | | Iron | 1.2-1.62 mg | | Sodium | 26.2 mg | | Potassium | 55 mg | | Copper | 0.23 mg | | Sulfur | 13 mg | | Chlorine | 8 mg | | Vitamin A | 8 I.U. | | Thiamine | 0.008-0.03 mg | | Riboflavin | 0.009-0.01 mg | | Niacin | 0.2-0.29 mg | | Ascorbic Acid | 5.7-18 mg | | Choline | 7 mg | | Folic Acid | 3 mcg |
*Values reported from Asian and tropical American analyses. |
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Also present are gallic acid and tannin and a trace of oxalic acid.
In
Goa and the Philippines, jambolans are an important source of wine,
somewhat like Port, and the distilled liquors, brandy and "jambava"
have also been made from the fermented fruit. Jambolan vinegar,
extensively made throughout India, is an attractive, clear purple, with
a pleasant aroma and mild flavor.
Virmani gives the following
vinegar analysis: specific gravity, 1.0184; total acidity (as acetic
acid), 5.33 per 100 cc; volatile acid (as ascetic acid), 5.072 per 100
cc; fixed acidity, as citric, .275%; total solids, 4.12 per 100 cc;
ash, .42; alkalinity of ash, 32.5 (N/10 alkali); nitrogen, .6613 1;
total sugars, .995; reducing sugars, .995; non-volatile reducing
sugars, .995; alcohol, .159% by weight; oxidation value, (K MnO1),
186.4; iodine value, 183.7; ester value, 40.42.
Other Uses
Nectar:
The jambolan tree is of real value in apiculture. The flowers have
abundant nectar and are visited by bees (Apis dorsata) throughout the
day, furnishing most of the honey in the Western Ghats at an elevation
of 4,500 ft (1,370 m) where the annual rainfall is 300 to 400 in
(750-1,000 cm). The honey is of fine quality but ferments in a few
months unless treated.
Leaves:
The leaves have served as fodder for livestock and as food for tassar
silkworms in India. In Zanzibar and Pemba, the natives use young
jambolan shoots for cleaning their teeth. Analyses of the leaves show:
crude protein, 9.1%; fat, 4.3%; crude fiber, 17.0%; ash, 6.0%; calcium,
1.3%; phosphorus, 0.19%. They are rich in tannin and contain the
enzymes esterase and galloyl carboxylase which are presumed to be
active in the biosynthesis of the tannins.
The essential oil
distilled from the leaves is used to scent soap and is blended with
other materials in making inexpensive perfume. Its chemical composition
has been reported by Craveiro et al. in Brazil. It consists mainly of
mono- or sesqui-terpene hydrocarbons which are "very common in
essential oils."
Bark:
Jambolan bark yields durable brown dyes of various shades depending on
the mordant and the strength of the extract. The bark contains 8 to 19%
tannin and is much used in tanning leather and preserving fishing nets.
Wood:
The wood is red, reddish-gray or brownish-gray, with close, straight
grain. The very small, oval pores are often connected by waxy belts of
loose tissue. The medullary rays are so fine as to be clearly visible
only when greatly magnified. When fresh, the sapwood is attacked by
powerpost beetles, pinhole borers and ambrosia beetles. Both sapwood
and heartwood are perforated by the borer, Aeolesthes holosericea, if
the bark is left on for as long as 10 months. Air-dried wood is apt to
crack and split. When kiln dried, the heartwood is hard, difficult to
work but polishes well. It is durable in water and resistant to borers
and termites; tends to warp slightly. In India, it is commonly used for
beams and rafters, posts, bridges, boats, oars, masts, troughs,
well-lining, agricultural implements, carts, solid cart wheels, railway
sleepers and the bottoms of railroad cars. It is sometimes made into
furniture but has no special virtues to recommend it for cabinetwork.
It is a fairly satisfactory fuel.
Medicinal
Uses
The
jambolan has received far more recognition in folk medicine and in the
pharmaceutical trade than in any other field. Medicinally, the fruit is
stated to be astringent, stomachic, carminative, antiscorbutic and
diuretic. Cooked to a thick jam, it is eaten to allay acute diarrhea.
The juice of the ripe fruit, or a decoction of the fruit, or jambolan
vinegar, may be administered in India in cases of enlargement of the
spleen, chronic diarrhea and urine retention. Water-diluted juice is
used as a gargle for sore throat and as a lotion for ringworm of the
scalp.
The seeds, marketed in 1/4 inch (7 mm) lengths, and the
bark are much used in tropical medicine and are shipped from India,
Malaya and Polynesia, and, to a small extent, from the West Indies, to
pharmaceutical supply houses in Europe and England. Extracts of both,
but especially the seeds, in liquid or powdered form, are freely given
orally, 2 to 3 times a day, to patients with diabetes mellitus or
glycosuiria. In many cases, the blood sugar level reportedly is quickly
reduced and there are no ill effects. However, in some quarters, the
hypoglycemic value of jambolan extracts is disclaimed. Mercier, in
1940, found that the aqueous extract of the seeds, injected into dogs,
lowered the blood sugar for long periods, but did not do so when given
orally. Reduction of blood sugar was obtained in alloxan diabetes in
rabbits. In experiments at the Central Drug Research Institute,
Lucknow, the dried alcoholic extract of jambolan seeds, given orally,
reduced blood sugar and glycosuria in patients.
The seeds are
claimed by some to contain an alkaloid, jambosine, and a glycoside,
jambolin or antimellin, which halts the diastatic conversion of starch
into sugar. The seed extract has lowered blood pressure by 34.6% and
this action is attributed to the ellagic acid content. This and 34
other polyphenols in the seeds and bark have been isolated and
identified by Bhatia and Bajaj.
Other reported constituents of
the seeds are: protein, 6.3-8.5%; fat, 1.18%; crude fiber, 16.9%; ash,
21.72%; calcium, 0.41%; phosphorus, 0.17%; fatty acids (palmitic,
stearic, oleic and linoleic); starch, 41%; dextrin, 6.1%; a trace of
phytosterol; and 6 to 19% tannin.
The leaves, steeped in
alcohol, are prescribed in diabetes. The leaf juice is effective in the
treatment of dysentery, either alone or in combination with the juice
of mango or emblic leaves. Jambolan leaves may be helpful as poultices
on skin diseases. They yield 12 to 13% tannin (by dry weight).
The
leaves, stems, flowerbuds, opened blossoms, and bark have some
antibiotic activity. A decoction of the bark is taken internally for
dyspepsia, dysentery, and diarrhea and also serves as an enema. The
root bark is similarly employed. Bark decoctions are taken in cases of
asthma and bronchitis and are gargled or used as mouthwash for the
astringent effect on mouth ulcerations, spongy gums, and stomatitis.
Ashes of the bark, mixed with water, are spread over local
inflammations, or, blended with oil, applied to bums. In modern
therapy, tannin is no longer approved on burned tissue because it is
absorbed and can cause cancer. Excessive oral intake of tannin-rich
plant products can also be dangerous to health.
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