Publication
from Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide
version 4.0
by C. Orwa, A. Mutua, R. Kindt, R. Jamnadass and S. Anthony
Tamarindus indica L.
Local Names: Afrikaans
(tamarinde); Amharic (humer, roka); Arabic (ardeib, aradeib); Bemba
(mushishi); Bengali (anbli, amli, nuli, tintul, tintiri, tentul); Burmese
(magyee, majee-pen); Creole (tamarenn); English (madeira mahogany, Indian
date, tamarind tree); Filipino (sampalok, kalamagi, salomagi); French
(tamarinde, tamarinier); Fula (jammeh, jammi, dabe); Gujarati
(ambali, amali); Hindi (tentul, chinta, anbli, tamrulhindi, amli, imli);
Indonesian (asam, asam jawa, tambaring); Khmer (khoua me, ‘am’pül,ampil);
Lao (Sino-Tibetan) (mak kham, khaam); Luganda (mukoge); Malay (asam
jawa); Mandinka (tomi, timbingo, timbimb, tombi); Nepali (imli); Nyanja
(mwemba); Sanskrit (amlica, tintiri); Sinhala (siyambala); Somali
(rakhai, hamar); Spanish (tamarin, tamarindo); Swahili (msisi, mkwaju);
Tamil (amilam, puli, puliamavam); Thai (bakham, makham, somkham); Tigrigna
(humer); Tongan (musika); Trade name (tamarind); Urdu (imli);
Vietnamese (trai me, me); Wolof (daharg, dakah, dakhar, ndakhar)
Family: Fabaceae - Caesalpinioideae
Botanic
Description
Tamarindus indica is a
large evergreen tree up to 30 m tall, bole usually 1-2 m, up to 2 m
diameter; crown dense, widely spreading, rounded; bark rough, fissured,
greyish-brown.
Leaves alternate, compound, with 10-18 pairs of
opposite leaflets; leaflets narrowly oblong, 12-32 x 3-11 mm, petiole
and rachis finely haired, midrib and net veining more or less
conspicuous on both surfaces; apex rounded to almost square, slightly
notched; base rounded, asymmetric, with a tuft of yellow hairs; margin
entire, fringed with fine hairs. Stipules present, falling very early.
Flowers
attractive pale yellow or pinkish, in small, lax spikes about 2.5 cm in
width. Flower buds completely enclosed by 2 bracteoles, which fall very
early; sepals 4, petals 5, the upper 3 well developed, the lower 2
minute.
Fruit a pod, indehiscent, subcylindrical, 10-18 x 4 cm,
straight or curved, velvety, rusty-brown; the shell of the pod is
brittle and the seeds are embedded in a sticky edible pulp. Seeds 3-10,
approximately 1.6 cm long, irregularly shaped, testa hard, shiny and
smooth.
As the dark brown pulp made from the fruit resembles dried
dates, the Arabs called it ‘tamar-u’l-Hind’, meaning ‘date of India’,
and this inspired Linnaeus when he named the tree in the 18th century. Tamarindus is a monospecific genus.
Biology
Flowering generally
occurs in synchrony with new leaf growth, which in most areas is during
spring and summer. The hermaphroditic bisexual flowers are probably
insect pollinated; however, no specific information has been found on
pollinating agents, except that honeybees collect nectar and pollen
from the flowers so, presumably, they contribute to pollination. T. indica
usually starts bearing fruit at 7-10 years of age, with pod yields
stabilizing at approximately 15 years. Fruits are adapted to dispersal
by ruminants; in Southeast Asia, monkeys are among the chief dispersal
agents. Fruit are leathery, nutritive pods that do not dehisce until
they have fallen from the tree, while the seeds are hard and smooth and
therefore hard to chew.
Ecology
T. indica
grows well over a wide range of soil and climatic conditions, occurring
in low-altitude woodland, savannah and bush, often associated with
termite mounds. It prefers semi-arid areas and wooded grassland, and
can also be found growing along stream and riverbanks. It does not
penetrate into the rainforest. Its extensive root system contributes to
its resistance to drought and wind. It also tolerates fog and saline
air in coastal districts, and even monsoon climates, where it has
proved its value for plantations. Young trees are killed by the
slightest frost, but older trees seem more cold resistant than mango,
avocado or lime. A long, well-marked dry season is necessary for
fruiting.
Biophysical
Limits
Altitude: 0-1 500 m, Mean annual temperature : 20-33 deg. C, Mean annual rainfall: 350-2 700 mm
Soil type: It grows in most soils but prefers well-drained deep alluvial soil.
Documented
Species Distribution
Native: Burkina Faso, Central
African Republic, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea,
Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria,
Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe
Exotic: Afghanistan,
Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Colombia, Cote
d'Ivoire, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Ghana, Guatemala, Haiti,
Honduras, India, Indonesia, Iran, Jamaica, Laos, Liberia, Malaysia,
Mauritania, Mexico, Myanmar, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Panama, Papua
New Guinea, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Togo, US,
Vietnam, Zambia
The
map above shows countries where the species has been planted. It does
neither suggest that the species can be planted in every ecological
zone within that country, nor that the species can not be planted in
other countries than those depicted. Since some tree species are
invasive, you need to follow biosafety procedures that apply to your
planting site.
Products
Food: The fruit pulp, mixed
with a little salt, is a favourite ingredient of the curries and
chutneys popular throughout India, though most of the tamarind imported
into Europe today comes from the West Indies, where sugar is added as a
preservative. When freshly prepared, the pulp is a light brown colour
but darkens with time; it consists of 8-14% tartaric acid and potassium
bitartrate, and 30-40% sugar. Acidity is caused by the tartaric acid,
which on ripening does not disappear, but is matched more or less by
increasing sugar levels. Hence tamarind is said to be simultaneously
the most acid and the sweetest fruit. The ripe fruit of the sweet type
is usually eaten fresh, whereas the fruits of sour types are made into
juice, jam, syrup and candy. Fruit is marketed worldwide in sauces,
syrups and processed foods. The juice is an ingredient of
Worcestershire Sauce and has a high content of vitamin B (thiamine and
niacin) as well as a small amount of carotene and vitamin C. The
flowers, leaves and seeds can be eaten and are prepared in a variety of
dishes. Tamarind seeds are also edible after soaking in water and
boiling to remove the seed coat. Flour from the seed may be made into
cake and bread. Roasted seeds are claimed to be superior to groundnuts
in flavour.
Fodder: The foliage has a high
forage value, though rarely lopped for this purpose because it affects
fruit yields. In the southern states of India cooked seeds of Tamarind
tree are fed to draught animals regularly.
Apiculture: Flowers are reportedly a good source for honey production.The second grade honey is dark-coloured.
Fuel: Provides good firewood with calorific value of 4 850 kcal/kg, it also produces an excellent charcoal.
Timber: Sapwood is light
yellow, heartwood is dark purplish brown; very hard, durable and strong
(specific gravity 0.8-0.9g/cubic m), and takes a fine polish. It is
used for general carpentry, sugar mills, wheels, hubs, wooden utensils,
agricultural tools, mortars, boat planks, toys, panels and furniture.
In North America, tamarind wood has been traded under the name of
‘madeira mahogany'.
Lipids: An amber coloured seed
oil - which resembles linseed oil - is suitable for making paints and
varnishes and for burning in lamps.
Tannin or
dyestuff: Both
leaves and bark are rich in tannin. The bark tannins can be used in ink
or for fixing dyes. Leaves yield a red dye, which is used to give a
yellow tint to clothe previously dyed with indigo. Ashes from the wood
are used in removing hair from animal hides.
Medicine: The bark is astringent
and tonic and its ash may be given internally as a digestive.
Incorporated into lotions or poultices, the bark may be used to relives
sores, ulcers, boils and rashes. It may also be administered as a
decoction against asthma and amenorrhea and as a febrifuge. Leaf
extracts exhibit anti-oxidant activity in the liver, and are a common
ingredient in cardiac and blood sugar reducing medicines. Young leaves
may be used in fomentation for rheumatism, applied to sores and wounds,
or administered as a poultice for inflammation of joints to reduce
swelling and relieve pain. A sweetened decoction of the leaves is good
against throat infection, cough, fever, and even intestinal worms.
Filtered hot juice of young leaves and a poultice of the flowers are
used for conjunctivitis. The pulp may be used as a massage is used to
treat rheumatism, as an acid refrigerant, a mild laxative and also to
treat scurvy. Powdered seeds may be given to cure dysentery and
diarrhoea.
Other products: The
pulp of the fruit, sometimes mixed with sea-salt, is used to polish
silver, copper and brass in India and elsewhere. The seed contains
pectin that can be used for sizing textiles. Ground, boiled, and mixed
with gum, the seeds produce a strong wood cement. In Africa, tamarind
is a host of one of the wild silkworms (Hypsoides vuillitii).
Services
Shade or shelter:
The extended crown of the tamarind offers shade so that it is used as a
‘rest and consultation tree’ in villages. Because of its resistance to
storms it can also be used as a windbreak. It should be considered,
however, that T. indica is
not very compatible with other plants because of its dense shade, broad
spreading crown and allelopathic effects. It is thus more commonly used
for firebreaks, as no grass will grow under the trees.
Boundary or barrier or support: T. indica could be inserted into a live fence.
Ornamental: The
evergreen habit and the beautiful flowers make it suitable for
ornamental planting in parks, along roads and riverbanks.
Tree
Management
Growth is
generally slow; seedling height increasing by about 60 cm annually. The
juvenile phase lasts up to 4-5 years, or longer. Young trees are pruned
to allow 3-5 well-spaced branches to develop into the main scaffold
structure of the tree. After this, only maintenance pruning is required
to remove dead or damaged wood. Trees generally require minimal care,
but in orchards in Thailand’s central delta, intensive cropping is
practised. This is possible because grafted trees come to bear within
3-4 years. Sweet cultivars are planted and good early crops limit
extensive growth; presumably the high water table, which prevents deep
rooting, also helps to dwarf the trees. Size-control measures include
close spacing (about 500 trees/ha) and pruning to rejuvenate the
fruiting wood. The trees also respond to coppicing and pollarding.
When
establishing a pure plantation, spacing should be at least 13 x 13 m.
Distance can be reduced with vegetatively propagated plants, as they do
not attain the same size as seeded trees. Smaller trees are easier to
harvest. The tree may remain productive until it reaches old age,
yielding up to 150 kg/tree or over 2 t/ha a year.
Germplasm
Management
Seed
storage behaviour is orthodox; no loss in viability during 1 years of
hermetic storage at 4 deg. C; and viability can be maintained for
several years in hermetic storage at 10 deg. C with 7-15% mc. There are
approximately 350-1 000 seeds/kg.
Pests and
Diseases
The most serious pests of the tamarind are scale insects (Aonidiella orientalis, Aspidiotus destructor and Saisetia oleae), mealy-bugs (Nipaecoccus viridis and Planococcus lilacinus), and a borer (Pachymerus gonagra).
Other minor pests in India include lac insects, and bagworms. Beetle
larvae cause damage to branches in Brazil, while in Florida and Hawaii
beetles attack ripe pods. Termites attack the tree in China. Stored
fruit is commonly infested in India. Larvae of the groundnut bruchid
beetle are serious pests that attack the fruit and seed in India. In
some seasons, fruit borers may inflict serious damage to maturing
fruits causing a great reduction in marketable yield.Diseases which
have been reported from India leaf spot, powdery mildews, a sooty
mould, stem disease, stem, root and wood rot, stem canker, a bark
parasite and a bacterial leaf-spot.
Further
Reading
Albrecht J. ed. 1993. Tree seed hand book of Kenya. GTZ Forestry Seed Center Muguga, Nairobi, Kenya.
Anon. 1986. The useful plants of India. Publications & Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, India.
Beentje HJ. 1994. Kenya trees, shrubs and lianas. National Museums of Kenya.
Bein E. 1996. Useful trees and shrubs in Eritrea. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Nairobi, Kenya.
Bekele-Tesemma
A, Birnie A, Tengnas B. 1993. Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia.
Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International
Development Authority (SIDA).
Birnie A. 1997. What tree is that? A beginner's guide to 40 trees in Kenya. Jacaranda designs Ltd.
Coates-Palgrave K. 1988. Trees of southern Africa. C.S. Struik Publishers Cape Town.
Crane E (ed.). 1976. Honey: A comprehensive survey. Bee Research Association.
Dale IR, Greenway PJ. 1961. Kenya trees and shrubs. Buchanan’s Kenya Estates Ltd.
Eggeling. 1940. Indigenous trees of Uganda. Govt. of Uganda.
El-Siddig K, Gunasena HPM, Prasad BA, Pushpakumara DKNG, Ramana KVR, Vijayanand P, Williams JT. 2006. Tamarind Tamarindus indica L. Southampton, UK: Southampton Centre for Underutilised Crops. 198p.
Gunasena HPM, Pushpakumara DKNG. 2007. Chapter 12: Tamarind Tamarindus indica
L.: In: Pushpakumara DKNG, Gunasena HPM, Singh VP. 2007 eds.
Underutilized fruit trees in Sri Lanka. World Agroforestry Centre,
South Asia Office, New Delhi, India. p. 352-388.
Hines DA, Eckman K.
1993. Indigenous multipurpose trees for Tanzania: uses and economic
benefits to the people. Cultural survival Canada and Development
Services Foundation of Tanzania.
Hocking D. 1993. Trees for Drylands. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi.
Hong TD, Linington S, Ellis RH. 1996. Seed storage behaviour: a compendium. Handbooks for Genebanks: No. 4. IPGRI.
ICRAF.
1992. A selection of useful trees and shrubs for Kenya: Notes on their
identification, propagation and management for use by farming and
pastoral communities. ICRAF.
Katende AB et al. 1995. Useful trees
and shrubs for Uganda. Identification, Propagation and Management for
Agricultural and Pastoral Communities. Regional Soil Conservation Unit
(RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA).
Kayastha
BP. 1985. Silvics of the trees of Nepal. Community Forest Development
Project, Kathmandu.Lanzara P. and Pizzetti M. 1978. Simon &
Schuster's Guide to Trees. New York: Simon and SchusterLuna R K. 1997.
Plantation trees. International Book Distributors.
Mbuya LP et al.
1994. Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania: Identification, Propagation
and Management for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities. Regional Soil
Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority
(SIDA).
Noad T, Birnie A. 1989. Trees of Kenya. General Printers, Nairobi.
Parkash
R, Hocking D. 1986. Some favourite trees for fuel and fodder. Society
for promotion of wastelands development, New Delhi, India.
Parrotta JA. 1990. Tamarindus indica L., Tamarind. SO-ITF-SM-30. USDA Forestry Service, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.
Perry LM. 1980. Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia : attributed properties and uses. MIT Press. South East Asia.
Pushpakumara DKNG, Gunasena HPM. 2006. In: Williams JT, Smith RW, Haq N, Dunsiger Z. eds. Tamarind: Tamarindus Indica. Southampton Centre for Underutilized Crops, Southampton, UK.
Pushpakumara DKNG, Gunasena HPM. 2007. Chapter 12: Tamarind Tamarindus indica
L.: Progress of ACUC-CARP-UP research activities on selected
under-utilized fruit trees in Sri Lanka. Paper presented at the 4th
International Symposium on New Crops held at the University of
Southampton, UK from 2-4 September 2007. 32p.
Sahni KC. 1968. Important trees of the northern Sudan. United Nations and FAO.
Singh RV. 1982. Fodder trees of India. Oxford & IBH Co. New Delhi, India.
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