From Plant
Resources of South-East Asia No 5 (2): Timber trees; Minor commercial
timbers, PROSEA
Foundation
by Rugayah and R. H. M. J. Lemmens
Taxon
Dillenia indica L.
Protologue
Sp. pl. 1: 535 (1753); Gen. pl. (Ed. 5): 239 (1754). 1,2
Family
DILLENIACEAE 2
Chromosome Numbers
x = unknown; Dillenia indica: n = 28, 2n = 24, 54, Dillenia ovata: 2n = 32, 48, Dillenia pentagyna: n = 13, Dillenia suffruticosa: 2n = 26 2
Trade Groups
Trade groups Simpoh: medium-weight to heavy hardwood, e.g. Dillenia excelsa (Jack) Gilg, Dillenia grandifolia Wallich ex Hook.f. & Thomson, Dillenia papuana Martelli, Dillenia pentagyna Roxb., Dillenia pulchella (Jack) Gilg, Dillenia reticulata King. 2
Synonyms
Dillenia
speciosa Thunb. (1791). 1
Vernacular
Names
Indonesia: simpur, sempur, simpur air (Sumatra, Java), sempur cai (Sundanese, Java),
sempu (Javanese, Java). Malaysia: simpor (Sabah) ,simpoh (Peninsular), simpoh kuning
(Sarawak). Philippines: India katmon (general), handapara (Singhalese).
Burma (Myanmar): zinbyum, mai-masan, thabyu. Cambodia: 'san. Thailand: matat (central),
san, masan, sompru (Surat Thani), san-pao (Chiang Mai). Vietnam: s[oof] b[af]. 1,2
Origin and Geographic Distribution
India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China,
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and Borneo; often
cultivated as ornamental, sometimes outside the area of natural
distribution, e.g. in the Philippines. 1
Dillenia consists of about 60
species and is distributed from Madagascar and the Seychelles, north to
the Himalayas and southern China, throughout South-East Asia and east
to the Fiji Islands and Australia. The Philippines is richest in
species (12, 10 endemic), followed by Peninsular Malaysia and New
Guinea (each 10, 6 endemic in New Guinea and 1 endemic in Peninsular
Malaysia), Borneo, Sumatra and Thailand (each 9, 2 endemic in Borneo),
Burma (Myanmar) and Indo-China (each 8, 2 endemic in Burma (Myanmar)
and 1 endemic in Indo-China). Dillenia indica and Dillenia pentagyna have the largest areas of distribution (from India and southern China to Borneo for Dillenia indica, and from India and southern China to Thailand and in eastern Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands and southern Sulawesi for Dillenia pentagyna). 2
Uses
The
timber is used as simpoh, especially for interior construction. The
wood is also used as firewood. The fruits are eaten in curries or
jellies; mixed with sugar, they are used against coughs and rubbed in
water as soap. The tree is often planted as an ornamental. 1
Simpoh timber is suitable for general construction, posts, beams,
joists, rafters, doors, window frames and sills, stairs, flooring,
ceilings, decorative wall panelling, furniture, mouldings, frames and
bottom boards of boats, vans, fancy boxes, package, pallets, structural
grade plywood and sliced veneers. Quarter-sawn boards usually show a
beautiful grain and may be used for decorative items. Although the wood
is not durable under tropical conditions, it is easy to treat with
preservatives and then suitable for all medium-heavy construction and
also for sleepers and pilings. It used to be used for dunnage as a
substitute for keruing (Dipterocarpus spp.). Several species yield a good quality charcoal. 2
The
indehiscent fruits of some species are eaten either cooked or uncooked
in jellies and curries; the taste is usually slightly acid.
Trees of Dillenia indica, Dillenia obovata, Dillenia ovata and Dillenia suffruticosa
(Griffith) Martelli are widely planted as ornamental, the last species
especially because of its attractive flowers and fruits produced
throughout the year. 2
The
bark yields an extract which has astringent properties and a red dye.
The bark has also been used medicinally against boils. 2
Production and International Trade
Simpoh
has some importance as export timber in Sabah and Papua New Guinea. In
1992, the export from Sabah was 15 000 m3 (24% as sawn timber) with a
total value of US$ 1.4 million. In Papua New Guinea, Dillenia wood is
traded in MEP (Minimum Export Price) group 4; in 1992 it fetched a
minimum price of US$ 43/m3 for logs. Japan imports simpoh timber mainly
from Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. In 1987, simpoh
accounted for about 5% of the total timber import in Japan from Papua
New Guinea, and for about 10% of that from the Solomon Islands. 2
Properties
Simpoh
is a medium-weight to heavy hardwood. The heartwood is red-brown to
dark reddish-brown, sometimes with a purplish tinge, and usually
indistinctly demarcated from the slightly paler sapwood. Quarter-sawn
wood may have an attractive silver grain figure. The density is 560—930
kg/m3 at 15% moisture content. The grain is straight or, more usually,
interlocked, texture moderately coarse and even.
At 12% moisture
content, the modulus of rupture is 86—102 N/mm2, modulus of elasticity
11 100—17 440 N/mm2, compression parallel to grain 38—49 N/mm2,
compression perpendicular to grain 10.5—12 N/mm2, shear 9—14 N/mm2,
Janka side hardness 4050—6530 N and Janka end hardness 8035—8830 N.
The
rates of shrinkage of simpoh are fairly high to high: in Malaysia from
green to 15% moisture content c. 2.2% radial and 3.9% tangential and
from green to oven dry 4.1—5.2% radial and 8.8—9.6% tangential; for
simpoh wood from Papua New Guinea, shrinkage values of 3.0% radial and
12.0% tangential from green to oven dry are reported. Experiments in
Malaysia showed that radial boards of Dillenia grandifolia
air dry without difficulty, but tangential board cupped fairly badly
and some showed slight twisting, bowing and end and surface checking;
end splitting may be severe, and sawn material tends to spring
immediately after sawing. It takes about 4 months to air dry boards 15
mm thick; 40 mm thick boards dry in about 5 months. For kiln drying, a
temperature of 40.5—65.5°C is recommended with corresponding relative
humidity of 85% to 40% (kiln schedule C in Malaysia). Wood from
Dillenia papuana is difficult to kiln dry as it easily deforms; a mild
kiln schedule is recommended, drying the wood in about 7 days from
green to 1% moisture content.
Wood of Dillenia grandifolia
is comparatively easy to saw, although the very fine sawdust tends to
clog the saw. It is easy to plane, bore and turn, and finishes to a
smooth surface, although slightly rough after boring. The nail-holding
properties are often poor. Timber of Dillenia reticulata was found to be suitable for the production of veneer and plywood in a test in Malaysia, but tests with Dillenia grandifolia
in Indonesia showed that the peeled veneers of 1.5 mm thick (without
pretreatment at a 91° peeling angle) become wavy after drying, although
gluing with urea-formaldehyde produces plywood complying with the
Japanese standard. Tests in Malaysia showed that wood of Dillenia grandifolia
is suitable for the production of concrete shuttering and it meets the
Japanese standard for structural plywood with regard to bending
strength and stiffness value. Tests in Korea on pulping characteristics
of simpoh wood from Kalimantan and Papua New Guinea showed that the
wood is not suitable for this purpose, and in India it has been found
that wood of Dillenia pentagyna
showed considerable variation in fibre length and wood density both
within and between trees, which makes it less suitable for pulping. Dillenia papuana wood is suitable for making cement board.
Simpoh is classified as non-durable to moderately durable. Test sticks of Dillenia grandifolia
in Malaysia were destroyed within one year when partly buried in the
ground. The wood is susceptible to dry-wood termites, blue stain and
wood-rotting fungi, but Dillenia reticulata wood is moderately resistant to fungi. Wood of Dillenia grandifolia
is fairly easy to treat with preservatives; it absorbs 105—130 kg/m3 of
an equal mixture of creosote and diesel fuel when using the open tank
method.
Wood of Dillenia grandifolia
contains 50% cellulose, 31% lignin, 14% pentosan and 1.0% ash. The
solubility is 0.6% in alcohol-benzene, 2.3% in cold water, 4.6% in hot
water and 17.0% in a 1% NaOH solution. Dillenia papuana
wood contains 78% holocellulose, 29% lignin, 8% pentosan and 2.0% ash.
The solubility is 1.5% in alcohol-benzene. The wood of some species
(e.g. Dillenia pentagyna) contains saponins. The wood is often suitable for charcoal manufacture, with high energy value, e.g. 32 200 kJ/kg for Dillenia papuana. 2
Description
Evergreen
or deciduous shrubs or small to fairly large trees up to 40(—50) m
tall; bole up to 125(—200) cm in diameter, often with steep buttresses,
sometimes buttresses absent, stilt roots often present; bark surface
smooth becoming slightly fissured, flaky or papery scaly, often
reddish-brown, sometimes greyish-brown, inner bark fairly thick and
fibrous, usually hissing when cut and with copious watery exudate,
pinkish-red to brownish-red, with fine radial lines; branching often
sympodial but sometimes monopodial, twigs stout, with prominent
horseshoe-shaped leaf scars. Leaves arranged spirally, simple, entire,
toothed or undulate at margin, usually prominently pinnately veined,
petiole often with wings, either caducous and amplexicaul or persistent
and not completely amplexicaul; stipules absent. Flowers in axillary or
terminal racemose inflorescences or solitary, often large and showy,
pedicellate, (4—)5(—6)-merous; sepals free, generally fleshy and
concave, persistent in fruit; petals free but sometimes not spreading
and falling as a whole, caducous, white or yellow, sometimes absent;
stamens numerous, usually free, anthers opening by pores or
longitudinal slits, sometimes staminodes also present; carpels 4—20,
joined at base and arranged in a whorl around a more or less distinct
protruding part of the receptacle, each carpel with 4—numerous ovules.
Fruit consisting of several follicles and enclosed by the enlarged
fleshy sepals (a pseudocarp), remaining closed or splitting open as a
star. Seeds arillate (in species with dehiscent fruits), or not
arillate (in most species with indehiscent fruits), with dark brown to
black, leathery or bony seed-coat, thick endosperm and very small
embryo. Seedling with epigeal germination, taproot weak and its
function is soon taken over by vigorous adventitious roots; leafy
cotyledons, leaves arranged spirally. 2
Wood Anatomy
— Macroscopic characters:
Heartwood
red-brown to dark red-brown, sometimes with a definite purplish tinge;
sapwood yellowish on the outside and gradually becoming pinkish or
orange near the heartwood and usually not sharply defined. Grain
interlocked, sometimes straight. Texture moderately coarse to coarse
and even; figure prominent particularly on quarter-sawn surfaces due to
darker wide rays. Growth rings not evident; vessels moderately large
and distinct to the naked eye, evenly distributed, with scattered
presence of white chalky deposits; parenchyma sparse to moderately
abundant; rays of two sizes, the larger rays easily visible to the
naked eye, conspicuous on radial surface; ripple marks absent.
— Microscopic characters:
Growth rings inconspicuous, but clear annual rings reported for Dillenia indica.
Vessels diffuse, 3—9/mm2, predominantly solitary (c. 95%), rarely in
radial pairs, round to occasionally oval, often angular, (110—)130—240
µm in tangential diameter; perforations scalariform with 5—40 bars;
intervessel pits sparse, opposite and scalariform, rarely alternate,
mainly found in overlapping ends of vessel tips, 12—20 µm in diameter,
non-vestured; vessel-ray pits large, half-bordered, with elongated
apertures, oblique to horizontal; helical thickenings absent; scattered
chalky deposits present; tyloses scarce. Fibres 1.7—3.7 mm long,
non-septate, thick-walled, with distinctly bordered pits mainly in the
radial walls. Parenchyma sparse to moderately abundant, mainly
apotracheal, diffuse to diffuse-in-aggregates, in 4—8-celled strands.
Rays c. 2—3/mm, of 2 distinct sizes, uniseriate and
(2—)3—15(—20)-seriate, 4—10 mm (up to 100 cells) high, heterocellular
with 3—6 rows of upright cells (Kribs type heterogeneous II), central
portion of multiseriate rays made up of procumbent to square cells,
uniseriate rays made up of upright cells. Raphides infrequent and
scattered in enlarged cells (idioblasts) in ray and parenchyma cells.
Silica absent. Extraneous reddish-brown deposits sparse to abundant in
ray and parenchyma cells. 2
Species studied: Dillenia excelsa, Dillenia grandifolia, Dillenia indica, Dillenia philippinensis, Dillenia pulchella, Dillenia salomonensis (C.T. White) Hoogl, Dillenia schlechteri.
Keruing (Dipterocarpus)
wood, particularly heartwood with a purplish cast, can sometimes
exhibit a superficial appearance to simpoh. However, simpoh can easily
be identified by having rays of two sizes and conspicuous radial
divisions in the pores along with the distinctive chalky white
deposits. 2
Growth and Development
The
seedling has a weak taproot and its function is soon taken over by
adventitious roots from the hypocotyl and stem which may later develop
into prominent stilt roots in mature trees. Saplings do not branch for
a long time and have larger leaves than mature trees. The apical bud is
protected by the base of an unexpanded leaf. Dillenia pentagyna and Dillenia indica
trees have Scarrone's model of tree architecture, with an indeterminate
trunk bearing tiers of branches, each branch complex is orthotropic and
sympodially branched as a result of terminal flowering.
Mean annual diameter increments of over 0.8 cm have been reported for Dillenia grandifolia, but other species grow slower, e.g. about 0.3 cm/year in diameter for Dillenia obovata and Dillenia ovata. Trees of Dillenia grandifolia
planted in an arboretum in Malaysia reached a diameter of 62 cm in 45
years and a height of 28 m. In India, it was calculated that trees of Dillenia pentagyna
take over 200 years to reach a diameter of 60 cm with fastest annual
diameter increment of 0.3—0.4 cm/year for diameter classes ranging from
51—90 cm. 2
Several species are deciduous, e.g. Dillenia grandifolia, Dillenia obovata, Dillenia pentagyna and Dillenia reticulata. The flowers are borne before or after the new leaves develop. However, most species in Malesia are evergreen. Dillenia indica
is known to flush once a year; new leaves start to flush at about the
same time that most old leaves abscise (a "leaf-exchanging""
species). 2
The
arillate seeds of simpoh species with dehiscent fruits are eaten and
dispersed by birds. Indehiscent fruits are eaten mainly by mammals such
as elephants, monkeys, pigs and squirrels. Fruits are sometimes
dispersed by water (e.g. Dillenia indica). 2
Other Botanical Information
Species with dehiscent fruits and arillate seeds were formerly considered as belonging to the separate genus Wormia. However, some species with indehiscent fruits also have arillate (although rudimentary) seeds (e.g. Dillenia reticulata), a condition which is regarded as derived.
Dillenia salomonensis (C.T. White) Hoogl. is a large tree from the Solomon Islands the wood of which is exported. 2
Ecology
Simpoh
is found in lowland and hill dipterocarp forest, swamp to semi-swamp
forest and old secondary forest, generally below 1000 m altitude, but
some species occur up to 2000 m (e.g. Dillenia montana Diels in Papua
New Guinea). Dillenia pentagyna is confined to regions with a distinct
dry period. 2
Propagation and planting
The seed weight is only reported for Dillenia pentagyna: 1 kg contains about 58 500 dry seeds. The heavy, fleshy and indehiscent fruits of some species such as Dillenia philippinensis
can be collected from the ground, but in general fruits containing many
small seeds need to be collected from the tree. After extraction by
maceration, seed should not be allowed to dry out before sowing. The
duration of the period before germination varies with the species.
Generally, germination is poor. Seed of Dillenia excelsa germinates after only 5—9 days, there is 35% germination of Dillenia sumatrana seed in 1.5—4 months, and of Dillenia grandifolia after 2.5—11 months; there is 1—25% germination of Dillenia ovata in 3—9.5 months, 60% germination of Dillenia reticulata in 2—12 months and only 6% of the seeds of Dillenia obovata germinate in 7.5—14.5 months. Whole fruits may also be planted, as was shown in experiments with Dillenia ovata
in Malaysia in which germination was 70%, but the period of germination
is very long and ranges from 1.5—10 months. Planting stock can also be
produced from wildlings. 2
Silviculture and Management
Most Dillenia species are referred to as long-lived pioneer or late secondary species. Dillenia suffruticosa, however, is a real pioneer species and can be found in clearings and forest fringes. Both Dillenia indica and Dillenia salomonensis can stand shade very well; vigorous saplings have been found in dense shade. However, Dillenia pentagyna
is a light-demanding species in the conditions prevailing in India.
Natural regeneration is generally sufficient in natural forest and
simpoh can compete successfully with fast-growing secondary forest
species. Rather abundant natural regeneration of Dillenia grandifolia was observed in 18-month-old industrial plantations of Acacia mangium Willd. and Eucalyptus deglupta
Blume in East Kalimantan. It was considered appropriate to combine the
natural regeneration with that of other long-lived pioneers to fill
gaps in industrial plantations. Small species of simpoh may be regarded
as a weed in silvicultural operations, because of their heavy crowns.
Some species coppice freely. 2
Harvesting
Trees
are usually sound, but logs may split very badly soon after felling.
Simpoh species from peat-swamp forest are among those producing more
durable wood and are used for bearers in logging railways. 2
Yield
Simpoh
usually occurs not abundantly and scattered. In Peninsular Malaysia, on
average about 1 tree of commercial size per 3 ha is found, although
locally in secondary bamboo forest more than 1 tree per ha may be
found. 2
Genetic Resources
Many Dillenia
species are local endemics, especially in the Philippines and New
Guinea, and seem to be at risk of genetic erosion or even extinction.
An example is Dillenia celebica, the wood of which is locally used in Sulawesi without additional planting. 2
Prospects
Simpoh
may have good prospects for commercial timber exploitation from
plantations. The wood is decorative and can be used for many purposes;
it is generally non-durable but easy to treat with preservatives. At
least a few species (e.g. Dillenia grandifolia)
are fast growing. However, more research is needed, especially on
methods of propagation and preservative treatment of the wood. 2
Literature.2
Burgess, P.F., 1966. Timbers of Sabah. Sabah Forest Records No 6. Forest Department Sabah. pp. 90-93.
Hoogland,
R.D., 1951. Dilleniaceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora
Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 4. Noordhoff-Kolff, Jakarta. pp. 141-174.
Hoogland, R.D., 1952. A revision of the genus Dillenia. Blumea 7(1): 1-145.
Hoogland,
R.D., 1972. Dilleniaceae. In: Smitinand, T. & Larsen, K. (Editors):
Flora of Thailand. Vol. 2. Thailand Institute of Scientific and
Technological Research, Bangkok. pp. 95-108.
Keating, W.G. &
Bolza, E., 1982. Characteristics, properties and uses of timbers. Vol.
1: South-East Asia, Northern Australia and the Pacific. Division of
Chemical Technology, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization. Inkata Press, Melbourne, Sydney & London. p. 121.
Kochummen,
K.M., 1972. Dilleniaceae. In: Whitmore, T.C. (Editor): Tree flora of
Malaya. A manual for foresters. Vol. 1. Malayan Forest Records No 26.
Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Longman Malaysia SDN. Berhad, Kuala
Lumpur. pp. 183-193.
Lim, S.C., 1982. Malaysian timbers - simpoh.
Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 67. Malaysian Timber Industry
Board, Kuala Lumpur. 8 pp.
Martawijaya, A., Kartasujana, I.,
Mandang, Y.I., Prawira, S.A. & Kadir, K., 1992. Indonesian wood
atlas. Vol. 2. Forest Products Research and Development Centre, Bogor.
pp. 122-127.
Ng, F.S.P., 1991. Manual of forest fruits, seeds and
seedlings. Vol. 1. Malayan Forest Record No 34. Forest Research
Institute Malaysia, Kepong. pp. 49-50, 219-222.
Sun, K.K. et al., 1982. Studies on the end-use development of lesser-known tropical timbers. (I) Studies on five species Elmerillia sp., Koompassia sp., Litsea sp., Dillenia sp., Swintonia
sp. grown in Batulicin district, South Kalimantan, Indonesia. Research
Reports of the Forest Research Institute Korea No 29: 193-211.
Observations
A medium-sized to large evergreen tree up to 40 m tall, with often
rather crooked bole branchless for up to 15 m and up to 120 cm in
diameter (but often much less), buttresses absent or small, bark
surface smooth but peeling off in small scales, orange-brown to dark
orange; leaves oblong, (8—)15—30(—40) cm (4—)6—12(—15) cm, margin
slightly to distinctly dentate, petiole up to 10(—15) cm long; flowers
15—20 cm in diameter, sepals 5, petals white with green veins, stamens
in 2 distinct groups, the inner ones larger, anthers without acumen,
opening by pores; fruit indehiscent; seed without aril. Dillenia indica
occurs in evergreen forest or tropical rain forest, often along rivers,
in Java especially in teak forest, up to 1100 m altitude. The density
of the reddish wood is 560—650 kg/m3 at 15% moisture content. 1
Selected
Sources 1
[36] Backer, C.A. & Bakhuizen van den Brink, R.C., 1963–1968.
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[162] Flora Malesiana (various editors), 1950–. Kluwer Academic
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[216] HallT, F., Oldeman, R.A.A. & Tomlinson, P.B., 1978.
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[234] Heyne, K., 1927. De nuttige planten van Nederlands-Indid [The
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's-Gravenhage. 1953 pp.
[243] Hoogland, R.D., 1952. A revision of the genus Dillenia. Blumea
7(1): 1–145.
[386] Longman, K.A. & Jeník, J., 1987. Tropical forest and its
environment. 2nd edition. Longman Scientific and Technical, Essex. 347
pp.
[575] Smitinand, T. & Larsen, K. (Editors), 1970–. Flora of
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[648] Troup, R.S., 1921. Silviculture of Indian trees. 3 volumes.
Clarendon Press, Oxford.
[705] Whitmore, T.C. & Ng, F.S.P. (Editors), 1972–1989. Tree
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